WID assignments are typically, but not exclusively, formal documents prepared over a few weeks or even months. The final documents adhere to format and style guidelines typical of the professional genres they help students learn about and practice. Teachers comment primarily on the substance of these assignments, but teachers also expect students to meet professional standards of layout and proofreading (format and mechanical correctness).

Without doubt, the single most important reason for assigning writing tasks in disciplinary courses is to introduce students to the thinking and writing of that discipline. Even though students read disciplinary texts and learn course material, until they practice the language of the discipline through writing, they are less likely to learn that language thoroughly. In addition, teachers cite other specific advantages of WID tasks, large and small. Such writing helps students to:

integrate and analyze course content
provide a field-wide context to course material
practice thinking skills relevant to analyses in the discipline
practice professional communication
prepare for a range of careers in the field

When to Choose WID, WTE, or WTL

Teachers need to decide which goals are most important for them and for the students they typically teach. For instance, if you ordinarily teach a freshman-level survey course that introduces students to the field, giving students practice in the conventions of writing for that field is generally inappropriate. Rather, you would probably want to give students opportunities to write about the new, foundational concepts they're being introduced to so that you can be sure they are learning the fundamental ideas they will need to take other courses in your discipline.

Teachers thinking about assigning writing in their courses also need to consider just how much time they'll have to review or respond to student writing. Assigning a 20-page term paper in a course with 200 students is unrealistic because teachers seldom have time to read and respond to such lengthy student writing.

Adjusting WID Tasks to Your Teaching Context

As teachers determine goals for writing and their time commitment, they discover an entire spectrum of writing they might assign in their classes. You will base your decisions on complex factors, but the simplified grid below can point you toward additional materials that might be most useful to you as you plan your writing component for each class.

Use this grid to suggest which kinds of writing might be most appropriate in your classes:

	WTL	WTE	WID
Goals	to help students learn foundational concepts to check students' understanding of material	to practice in critical thinking, reading and writing; to engage students in critical thinking	to practice writing conventions of the discipline; to gain familiarity with genres and design conventions
Students	mostly freshmen and sophomores	all students	mostly senior majors
Typical enrollment	can be used in the largest classes	varies depending on goals	fewer than 35
Possible assignments	• writing-to-learn prompts	• reading journals • lab or field notebooks • response papers	• real writing tasks for audiences students will write to as professionals in field • academic papers based on journals in the field • library or other source-based writing

Alternate Forms/Formats that Mimic Professional Writing

Think of alternate forms/formats. Although the research essay is the most common kind of WID assignment, it's not the only format that students can use to learn about disciplinary writing conventions. If professionals in your field use any of these types of writing, consider using these formats to help students understand the thinking and writing of your discipline:

Project or lab notebook
Progress report
Management plan
Position paper
Interpretive essay
Casebook
Review of literature
Journal or professional article
Project proposals
Grant proposals
Lab/field reports

Combining WTL and WTE with WID

In addition to discipline-specific formats, other kinds of writing assignments can help students learn the language and ways of thinking of a discipline, even though they may not mimic its professional writing. Any of these writing activities can provide the basis for a longer, more formal assignment, or can be used only to promote class discussion and/or thinking about course material:

Reading Journal

In a discipline-specific context, teachers using a reading journal ask students to write summaries, responses, and syntheses as appropriate for the field. "Readings" might include not only assigned textbook material, but also lectures and outside reading of professional or popular articles relevant to the course material. Teachers might want to assign specific questions to be answered in entries about each reading, or they might link readings in other ways.

Jargon Journal

When you introduce new terms in your lectures or when students see them in readings, ask students to jot the terms down in a notebook or electronic file. Periodically, students then return to the list of terms and fill in or revise working definitions of each term. (Some terms will be easy to define immediately after they are introduced in a course; other terms might take more familiarity with the complexity of a concept to define accurately.) Build in some incentive for keeping the jargon journal by pointing out that students can refer to the definitions as they prepare for—and perhaps write—exam responses.

Rhetorical Analysis

In addition to analyzing articles for content, as students might do in the reading journal, teachers can also ask students to look specifically at professional articles for rhetorical issues:

Scope and focus
Organization (conventional headings)
Arrangement
Level of detail
Kinds of evidence required
Uses of citations
Style

Small-group or full-class discussion of these analyses will help students understand the critical approaches professionals in the field typically adopt as well as the writing conventions accepted by major journals in the field.

Analyze an Expert's Revisions

Bring in drafts of your own work or of someone else's professional work that you have permission to share with students. Show students:

how professionals shape and revise research questions
how professionals work from raw data to write sections outlining results and discussion
how professionals move from draft to draft as they work through the entire writing project

Sequencing Tasks

One reason that students report feeling overwhelmed by WID tasks is that they aren't sure where to start and then how to proceed to produce a good project of the sort required by the assignment. You can help students—and get better final drafts to read—by setting up a sequence of tasks that build toward the final project.

Two approaches work well when designing a sequence:

Break the large writing task into chunks so that students can tackle parts of the assignment and get feedback before moving to the next chunk. For an example, view the Ag Econ sample assignment.
An alternative is to devise tasks that build on each other, known as scaffolding. For instance, if you hope to assign a professional review of literature as the final project, first have students write abstracts or summaries of articles, then ask for annotations, and finally ask for synthesis. At the same time, have students analyze published articles to determine what a review of literature typically looks like in your field. By giving students scaffolded writing and analytic tasks, they become more confident and more able to meet your criteria for the final writing task.

Responding to Student Writing

You'll find more detailed advice about feedback in the sections under

A few points bear repeating here:

Responding to students' writing involves far more than simply marking errors in punctuation and mechanics. Most grading time, by far, is devoted to commenting on focus, development and arrangement of ideas, the quality of arguments, and other larger issues.
Tell students in advance specifically what your expectations are for high-level writing skills. Then focus your commenting on how well students meet those specific criteria. Also consider developing a rubric or some other commenting guide to help you comment quickly but thoroughly on the points you decide are most important for a given assignment. (See the samples in "What makes a good writing assignment?" and "How can I handle responding to drafts?")

Improving the Research Essay

When professors are reluctant to assign research essays, they often claim that students cannot write clearly and logically, synthesizing sources and evaluating data to draw closely argued conclusions. Most often, these weaknesses are not the result simply of poor writing skills, but also of poorly defined criteria that students don't grasp. Fortunately, teachers can improve the research essay by clarifying goals for the assignment and keeping students' resources in mind.

Excellent Goals for Assigning Research Essays

Most university professors agree that research-based writing in college classes can and should meet these goals:

foster critical thinking about raw data and other people's conclusions
give students an opportunity to work independently on a large project
mimic behaviors that students must know if they pursue advanced academic degrees
mimic behaviors that students will draw on in other aspects of their lives (examples range from buying cars to management decisions)
familiarize students with major journals, research methodologies, and writing conventions of their major fields

Questions to Ask about how Students will Perceive your Goals

Students often view the research-based paper as an exercise in cutting and pasting rather than in carefully sifting and synthesizing key ideas that support their own thinking. So teachers get the best results from research-based assignments that they have revised after considering these questions:

Have we, in teaching research rather than critical thinking about researched information, misled ourselves and our students into reducing this vital undertaking into a set of easily replicated steps?
And then by focusing on the steps, do we give students the wrong message about what is important in doing research?
When we give students 50 pages on documentation styles, are we telling them that format is more important than the critical synthesis of views and data?
How, then, might we reorient students' thinking about research-based writing?
Do students who see most of the grading criteria and weighting of the final grade devoted to the mechanics of finding and citing material believe in the goals we hope to foster with research-based writing?

Three Points to Consider

If you've decided that a traditional research essay best meets your teaching goals, please consider three ideas that might make this assignment more useful for students:

Find out what your students already know about using the library and the Internet for research

Most students in upper-level courses (and even most freshmen) know how to find general sources. But many upper-division students may not yet be familiar with specific sources in your discipline. Make sure they know how to find these, and even consider arranging a session in the library to go over search techniques for databases in your field.

Find out what your students already know about reading research-based articles in your discipline

Students are remarkably reluctant to admit they have a hard time reading research-based texts. But if they don't know how to read professional articles in your field, they certainly won't know how to evaluate the data and conclusions in those articles. You can tackle this problem with some sequenced "mini"-writing tasks (like those described in the Combining WTL and WID section).

Give students a chance (or chances) to work on parts of the final assignment as separate tasks

The Ag Econ assignment is a good example of breaking down a larger writing task so that the teacher can see if students need help with key elements of the larger writing task. If students, for example, don't know how to frame an adequate research question, you can head off this problem if you give students a mini-task that asks for a research question long before students begin their source work.

Similarly, if your experience with this course in the past suggests that students often struggle to analyze or synthesize data, you might want to set up sequenced writing tasks that give them some practice—and feedback—on these key writing skills.

Beyond the Basics

The literature now available on writing in the disciplines or writing to communicate is deep and broad, encompassing far more than a brief bibliographic essay can accurately capture. Let me offer instead two pieces of advice—consult the general resources noted here and look at the journals in your discipline that take up teaching issues. Those journals are most likely to include articles that situate writing to communicate activities in the courses you might find yourself teaching. The articles themselves will glean from the robust resources to point you toward those titles that will best fill in background you might find helpful.

We collect below titles from across disciplines to offer some potential starting points. We have organized the resources in a table to cluster articles by discipline. Please note, however, that disciplinary titles here point to writing in the disciplines rather than writing to learn (or writing to engage) titles that are included in the WTL section of this resource. All titles refer to the list of Works Cited that follows the tables.

Titles sorted by broad disciplinary focus

General	Carter, Ferzli & Wiebe, 2007 Hocks, Lopez & Grabill, 2000 Kaufer & Young, 1993 Russell, 1991 Walvoord, 1992 Young & Fulwiler, 1986
Arts/Humanities	Bourelle, 2012 Ford, 2004 Ford & Newmark, 2011 Hotchkiss & Hougan, 2012 Lewis, 2004 Pollard, 2008 Russell, 2007 Shaver, 2011 Ward, 2009
Business	Addams, Woodbury, Allred & Addams, 2010 Brumberger, 2004 Fredrick, 2008 Jebb, 2005 Kreth, 2005 Nelson & MacLeod, 1993 Planken & Kreps, 2006 Powell, 2012 Russell, 2007 Shaver, 2007 Sin, Jones & Petocz, 2007 Vega, 2010 West, 2006 Williams, 2008 Williams & Reid, 2010
Education	Abbate-Vaughn, 2007 Elliot, Daily, Fredricks & Graham, 2008 Galer-Unti, 2002 Gallavan, Bowles & Young, 2007 Lavelle, 2006 Reynolds-Keefer, 2010 Street & Stang, 2008 Wheeler & Wheeler, 2009
STEM	Bahls, 2012 Bank, 2006 Becker, 1995 Beiersdorfer, 1991 Beins, 1993 Bressette & Breton, 2001 Buddington, 2006 Buzzi, Grimes & Roll, 2012 Carlson & Berry, 2008 Carroll & Seeman, 2001 Carson, 1991 Cass & Fernandes, 2008 Chiang, et al., 2012 Colabroy, 2011 Collins, 2010 Conrad, 1991 Craig, Lerner &Poe, 2008 Crisp & Jensen, 2007 Cunningham, 2007 Davis, 1991 Deese, Ramsey, Walczyk & Eddy, 2000 DeWolf, 2002 Doty, 2012 Elberty & Romey, 1991 Falk & Yarden, 2011 Fencl, 2010 Froese, Gantz & Henry, 1998 Goodman, 2005 Guilford, 2001 Halsor & Faul-Halsor, 1991 Harding, 2005 Hosten, Talanova & Lipkowitz, 2011 Howell, 2007 Irish, 1999 Jalali, Hanlan & Canal, 2009 Kasman, 2006 Killingbeck, 2006 Klein & Aller, 1998 Kokkala & Gessell, 2003 Kroen, 2004 Libarkin, 2012 Lillig, 2008 Linsdell & Anagnos, 2011 Lord, 2009 Luthy, Petertson, Lassitter & Callister, 2009 Macdonald, 1991 Martin, 2010 McDermott & Kuhn, 2011 McGovern & Hogshead, 1990 McMillan & Raines, 2010 Meyer & Munson, 2005 Mirsky, 1991 Mizrahi, 2003 Moni, Hryciw, Poronnik & Moni, 2007 Motavalli, Patton & Miles, 2007 Mulnix, 2003 Niemitz & Potter, 1991 Paretti & McNair, 2008 Patterson, 1997 Patton, 2008 Polizzotto & Ortiz, 2008 Prothero & Kelly, 2008 Roberts-Kirchoff & Caspars, 2001 Robinson, Stoller, Horn & Grabe, 2009 Santi, 2000 Sivey & Lee, 2008 Smosna & Bruner, 2007 Snow, 1991 Sulewski, 2003 Tilstra, 2001 Tomaska, 2007 Turner & Broemmel, 2006 Vest, Long & Anderson, 1996 Vest, Long, Thomas & Palmquist, 1995 Wald, Davis, Reis, Monroe & Borken, 2009 Wallner & Latosi-Sawin, 1999 Wheeler & McDonald, 2000 Whelan & Zare, 2003 White, 2007 Zimmerman & Palmquist, 1993 Zimmerman, Palmquist, Kiefer, Long, Vest, Tipton & Thomas, 1993 Zimmerman, Palmquist, Vest, Boiarsky, Long, Tajchman, Anderson, Criswell & Crim, 1995 Zlatic, Nowak & Sylvester, 2000
Social Sciences	Allwardt, 2011 Carlson, Chizmar, Seeborg & Walbert, 1998 Dickovick, 2009 Goma, 2001 Kahn & Holody, 2012 Kebede, 2009 Pennock, 2011 Pressman, 2008 Ruswick, 2011 Santos & Lavin, 2004 Trepagnier, 2004

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What is Writing in the Disciplines?

Contents

A Fuller Definition of WID